1:
RABBAH (PLACE) [Heb rabbâ (רַבָּה)]. 1. Also known as rabbat bĕnê ˓ammôn (Rabbah of the children of Ammon), the city that served as the capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. The site is located on Citadel Hill (Jebel Qal˓ah) in the middle of the modern city of Amman (M.R. 238151) on the N bank of the upper course of the Nahr ez-Zerqa (Wadi Zerqa; modern Wadi Amman), where powerful springs serve as the sources of the Jabbok river. See also AMMAN.
According to Deut 3:11, Rabbah is noted as the place where the “iron bedstead” of Og, last of the Rephaim and king of the Amorites at Bashan, was on display. It is possible that the iron bed was taken to Rabbah by the Ammonites as a trophy of their initial conquest, although Landes (IDB 1: 109) has suggested that it was preserved because of a special desire to show respect to the powers (human and divine) which controlled and possessed the land prior to the Ammonite emergence. At any rate, this passage shows that Rabbath-ammon was clearly already the capital of the Ammonites by the 13th century b.c.
A reference in Josh 13:25 describes Rabbah’s geographical relationship to Aroer. Although some translations locate Aroer “east of Rabbah,” a proper rendering should be “in front of [facing] Rabbah” (note the NIV reading of “near”). It would appear from this reference that Rabbah was clearly considered outside of the territory allotted to the Israelites.
The Ammonites were conquered by Israel, after provoking David to war by their humiliation of his messengers (2 Sam 11:1). The account of the siege (2 Sam 12:26–31) appears to provide a small clue to the actual physical layout of the Ammonite capital. Specifically, we are told in 2 Sam 12:26 that after fighting for some time against Rabbah, Joab was finally able to capture the ˓ı̂r hammĕlûkâ (“royal city”). In verse 27, however, Joab informs David that it is the ˓ı̂r hammāyim (“city of waters”) which has been taken. The use of these two expressions has raised a long-standing question as to whether Joab was using two different names for the city of Rabbah at large, or was intending to describe two different locations within the city. Most recent commentators have apparently opted for the second interpretation, suggesting that the ˓ı̂r hammĕlûkâ was a fortified royal citadel located on the top of the mound (acropolis), while the ˓ı̂r hammāyim was a special fortification that guarded the city’s water supply in the valley of the Jabbok. Although the two different expressions are attested in both the MT and the LXX, both Syr and Targ have changed the second expression ˓ı̂r hammāyim, to ˓ı̂r hammĕlûkâ in apparent support of the first interpretation. More recent critics have followed a similar approach, although Wellhausen (1871) preferred to alter the text so that ˓ı̂r hammāyim was read in both verses. McCarter, on the other hand, argues that such emendation of the text is unjustified and unnecessary (2 Samuel AB, 310–12). He suggests that both verses refer to the same place, but that rather than referring to the entire city at large, both expressions refer to a citadel within the city which both served as the king’s royal residence and guarded the city’s water supply. If the fortified royal residence was located atop that portion of the tell which immediately overlooked the springs of the Jabbok, it could easily have doubled as a fortification for the city’s water supply.
At any rate, after the city fell David placed the Ammonite crown on his head and subjected the people to forced labor (2 Sam 12:26–31; 2 Chr 20:1–3). It was during this siege that Uriah the Hittite was sent to his death (2 Sam 11:14–25). Later, when David was forced to seek refuge in Transjordan, Shobi, son of Nahash, from Rabbah, helped supply David (2 Sam 17:27–29).
It appears that Rabbah remained under Israelite suzerainty until the first half of the 9th century b.c., although it is not mentioned again until the mid-8th century b.c. (Amos 1:14). From this time until the fall of the S kingdom, Rabbah received numerous prophetic rebukes as the Ammonites tried to take advantage of Judah’s increasing political difficulties (Jer 49:2; Ezek 21:25 [—Eng 21:20]; 25:5).
Rabbah-ammon became a Hellenistic city when Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 b.c.) rebuilt and renamed the city Philadelphia, although the original name continued to be used by both local officials and contemporary historians. It was later conquered in 218 b.c. by the Seleucid king Antiochus III (“the Great”), who penetrated the city through a water tunnel, the remains of which can still be seen.
Josephus reveals that during the time of Hyrcanus (135–107 b.c.) Rabbah-ammon was ruled by the tyrant Zenon Cotylas and later, by his son, Theodorus. Although Alexander Jannaeus laid siege to the city during this time, he was unable to take it.
In 63 b.c., the Roman general Pompey annexed Philadelphia to the Decapolis. It remained under Arab control until Herod defeated the city in 30 b.c. During the Jewish revolt, Rabbah-ammon joined the fight against the Zealots.
During the time of Trajan, Rabbah-ammon was included in the province of Arabia (a.d. 106). A new road from Elath to Damascus, which ran through Rabbah-ammon, created an economic boom for the city which increased its wealth and importance during the Byzantine period. During the 4th century a.d., it was listed by Ammianus Marcellinus as one of the great fortified cities of Coele-Syria. It eventually became the seat of a Christian bishopric, forming one of the nineteen sees of Palaestina tertia.
When the city was conquered by the Muslim Yezid in a.d. 635, it was renamed Amman and made the capital of the Balqa district. During the Crusader period, it was ruled by a Transjordanian prince named Ahamant. It appears that during the Mameluke period Rabbah-ammon was deserted, and remained so until it was resettled by some Circassians in 1876. Amman became the capital of the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, and today it is the capital of the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan.
The first modern excavation in Amman was conducted by an Italian team led by G. Guidi in 1927. R. Bartoccini took over as director in the years 1929–33. In 1955 G. L. Harding examined the Ammon Airport structure just after it was discovered. It was later excavated by J. B. Hennessy in 1966 and, again, by L. Geraty and L. Herr in 1976. In 1966 R. Dornemann conducted a sounding on the Citadel Hill (Jebel Qal˓ah). Additional work was done at the citadel by C. Bennett (1975; 1979). Jordanian archaeologists (e.g., F. Zayadine, and A. Hadidi) have recently made several important discoveries and conducted many important soundings and excavations at various sites in Amman.
Remains from the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic periods have been reported from various locations in Amman. Dolmens are also said to have been scattered throughout the area, although none of these survive, the last having been destroyed in the early part of this century. See DOLMEN.
Occupation during the various periods of the EB (ca. 2900–2300 b.c.) is thus far represented only by unstratified pottery from Citadel Hill in Amman (Jebel Qal˓ah).
Middle Bronze I occupation is likewise supported only by sherd material so far, but remains from the MB II–III (ca. 1800–1550 b.c.) have been steadily accumulating. At least four MB II–III tombs have been reported from Amman: one on Jebel Jofeh el-Gharbi, SE of Citadel Hill; one on Jebel et Taj, ESE of Citadel Hill; and two on Citadel Hill, itself. The two tombs on Citadel Hill contained thirty-six scarabs (almost all from the 13th to 17th Egyptian dynasties) and six cylinder seals of types used between 1700 and 1200 b.c. Evidence for occupation of Citadel Hill, itself, comes from a probe conducted on the upper terrace, just N of the Hellenistic-Roman wall, in which a MB II glacis was revealed in association with two walls. Finally, it should be noted that the foundation deposit at the Amman Airport structure contained scarabs from the 17th to 13th centuries b.c., as well as four cylinder seals, two of which may date to MB II–III. Although these scarabs and seals were probably heirlooms and do not date the structure, itself, (which is clearly LB; see below), they do provide additional indirect evidence for MB II–III occupation.
The LB occupation on Citadel Hill is so far supported only by unstratified sherds. More intensive excavation will probably provide new information. The most important find of this period is the Amman Airport structure (Herr 1983a; 1983b). It is almost 15 m square in plan with outer walls 2 m thick. In addition to local pottery, a large quantity of imported Cypriot and Mycenaean ware was found, enabling archaeologists to date the structure to LB IIB (1300–1200 b.c.). Although the structure was initially interpreted as a temple, further excavation and analysis have led to the suggestion that the structure served as a “tower,” perhaps for the storage of funerary gifts. The discovery of a large number of burnt human bones as well as a large pile of slightly scorched rocks (which may have served as a pyre for cremation) lends support to the idea that the site served a funerary function. The increasing corpus of MB and LB finds around Amman has forced scholars to reevaluate Glueck’s hypothesis that central Transjordan essentially lacked any sedentary occupation during these periods.
Material from Iron I (1200–1000 b.c.) is limited to a tomb on Jebel Nuzha (initially assigned to LB IIB, but more likely represents the earliest Iron I phase; see Dornemann 1983: 31–34) and unstratified sherds from the 1969 sounding of Citadel Hill (Dornemann 1983: 106). The most important finds from Iron Age IB–IIA (10th–9th centuries b.c.) include a wall on Citadel Hill (possibly built by David after his recapture of the city) and the well-known Ammonite Citadel Inscription (dated between 875 and 825 b.c.). Finds from Iron IIB–C (8th–6th centuries b.c.), which are more abundant, include several statues of Ammonite kings—the crowns of which may resemble that which was captured by David (2 Sam 12:30); wall fragments on Citadel Hill from the 7th–6th centuries b.c.—possibly destroyed by the Assyrians; four double-faced stone heads of females, which may have served as ornamental capitals for royal buildings on Citadel Hill; the Siran Bottle Inscription—a 7th-century b.c. dedicatory inscription on a bronze bottle which mentions Amminadab, son of Hisalel, son of Amminadab, king of the Ammonites (this bottle was found at Tell Siran on the campus of the University of Jordan, in Amman); and several Iron IIB–C tombs. (For a more complete summary and bibliography of finds, see Dornemann 1983; Geraty and Willis 1986.)
There has been much discussion about a number of “megalithic towers” which have been assumed to have provided an outer “ring of defense” for Rabbah during the Iron Age. More recent analysis of these structures shows that they were not all contemporary (some date as late as the Roman period), nor did they all serve military functions. Indeed, many appear to have served as agricultural farmsteads and watchtowers.
Clearly, the archaeological evidence shows that during the latter part of the Iron IIB–C period ancient Amman was at the appex of its wealth and political power. This, undoubtedly, reflects the greater independence Amman enjoyed under Assyrian and Babylonian sovereignty as opposed to the greater oppression it experienced when dominated by Israel and Judah.
There is a paucity of archaeological remains for the Persian period, but material from the Hellenistic period has been found, including some walls on the lower terrace of Citadel Hill, various houses with plaster floors, painted pottery, Rhodian jar handles, coins, and an underground reservoir at the N end of the citadel. Two reliefs of gods from the 4th–3rd centuries b.c. were found in the forum area.
The most spectacular ruins, which can be seen on the surface on and around Citadel Hill, are from the Roman period. These remains include the well-known amphitheater, a colonnaded street, the nymphaeum, the odeum, an aqueduct, a bath, a temple complex, and several Roman tombs.
Byzantine and Arabic remains include two large houses on the citadel and a Byzantine church.
Bibliography
Bennett, C.-M. 1975. Excavations at the Citadel, Amman, 1975. ADAJ 20: 131–42.
———. 1979. Excavations on the Citadel (al Qal˓a) Amman, 1978. Fourth Preliminary Report. ADAJ 23: 161–70.
Dornemann, R. 1983. The Archaeology of the Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Milwaukee.
Geraty, L. T., and Willis, L. 1986. The History of Archaeological Research in Transjordan. Pp. 3–72 in The Archaeology of Jordan and Other Studies, ed. L. T. Geraty and L. Herr. Berrien Springs, MI.
Hadidi, A. 1974. The Excavation of the Roman Forum at Amman (Philadelphia), 1964–1967. ADAJ 19: 71–91.
Herr, L. G. 1983a. The Amman Airport Structure and the Geopolitics of Ancient Transjordan. BA 46/4: 223–29.
———. 1983b. The Amman Airport Excavations 1976. AASOR 48. Cambridge, MA.
Wellhausen, J. 1871. Der Text der Bücher Samuelis untersucht. Göttingen.
Zayadine, F. 1973. Recent Excavations on the Citadel of Amman. ADAJ 18: 17–35.
———. 1977–78. Excavations on the Upper Citadel of Amman—Area A, 1975–1977. ADAJ 22: 20–56.
Randall W. Younker
2. A town situated in the N highlands of Judah (Josh 15:60), within the same district as Kiriath-baal/Kiriath-jearim. This settlement, whose name perhaps means “the great one” (fem.), is listed among the towns within the tribal allotment of Judah (Josh 15:21–62). The theory that this list was derived from an administrative roster compiled under the Judean monarchy (Alt 1925) has been widely accepted, although controversy continues over the precise makeup of the districts, the proper context of the town lists of Benjamin and Dan, and the period of the monarchy to which the original roster belongs (Boling and Wright Joshua AB, 64–72). It is possible that this town is the same as Rubute of the Egyptian texts, although the difficulties of locating Rubute in the hill country, as Joshua 15 suggests for Rabbah, casts some doubt on this idea. In order to retain the identification of Rabbah with Rubute, Aharoni (LBHG, 299) argued that this district consisted of two fortresses guarding each end of the W approach to Jerusalem (M.R. 149137; cf. Rainey ISBE 4: 29). However, it seems unnecessarily arbitrary to assume that this district is unique, since all the other districts in this roster form reasonably compact geographical units. If this district is not unique, then we should look for Rabbah in the hill country close to Kiriath-baal/Kiriath-jearim. In this light, it seems best to admit that Rabbah of Judah remains to be identified.
Bibliography
Alt, A. 1925. Judas Gaue unter Josia. PJ 21: 100–16.
Wade R. Kotter
Freedman, D. N. (1996, c1992). The Anchor Bible Dictionary (5:598). New York: Doubleday.
2:
Rabbah — or Rab’bath, great. (1.) “Rabbath of the children of Ammon,” the chief city of the Ammonites, among the eastern hills, some 20 miles east of the Jordan, on the southern of the two streams which united with the Jabbok. Here the bedstead of Og was preserved (Deut. 3:11), perhaps as a trophy of some victory gained by the Ammonites over the king of Bashan. After David had subdued all their allies in a great war, he sent Joab with a strong force to take their city. For two years it held out against its assailants. It was while his army was engaged in this protracted siege that David was guilty of that deed of shame which left a blot on his character and cast a gloom over the rest of his life. At length, having taken the “royal city” (or the “city of waters,” 2 Sam. 12:27, i.e., the lower city on the river, as distinguished from the citadel), Joab sent for David to direct the final assault (11:1; 12:26–31). The city was given up to plunder, and the people were ruthlessly put to death, and “thus did he with all the cities of the children of Ammon.” The destruction of Rabbath was the last of David’s conquests. His kingdom now reached its farthest limits (2 Sam. 8:1–15; 1 Chr. 18:1–15). The capture of this city is referred to by Amos (1:14), Jeremiah (49:2, 3), and Ezekiel (21:20; 25:5).
(2.) A city in the hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:60), possibly the ruin Rubba, six miles north-east of Beit-Jibrin.
Easton, M. (1996, c1897). Easton's Bible dictionary. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.
3:
RABBAH One of the towns in the hill country assigned to Judah’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 15:60). Its location is uncertain. Some identify it with Rubute, mentioned in the Amarna tablets, or Khirbet Bir al-Hilu.
Elwell, W. A., & Comfort, P. W. (2001). Tyndale Bible dictionary. Tyndale reference library (1106). Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers.
4:
RAB´BAH (rabʹa; “great,” i.e., city). The name of several places:
1. A strong place on the E of the Jordan, which, when its name is first introduced in the sacred records, was the chief city of the Ammonites. In five passages (Deut. 3:11; 2 Sam. 12:26; 17:27; Jer. 49:2; Ezek. 21:20) it is called Rabbah of the sons of Ammon; elsewhere (Josh. 13:25; 2 Sam. 11:1; 12:27, 29; 1 Chron. 20:1; Jer. 49:3; Ezek. 25:5; Amos 1:14) simply Rabbah. It appears in the sacred records as the single city of the Ammonites. When first named it is in the hands of the Ammonites and is mentioned as containing the bed, or sarcophagus, of the giant Og (Deut. 3:11). It was not included in the territory of the tribes E of Jordan; the border of Gad stops at “Aroer which is before Rabbah” (Josh. 13:25). It was probably to Rabbah that Abishai led his forces while holding the Ammonites in check (2 Sam. 10:10, 14), whereas the main army, under Joab, rested at Medeba (1 Chron. 19:7). The next year Rabbah was made the main point of attack, Joab in command (2 Sam. 11:1); and after a siege, probably of two years, it was taken (12:26–29; 1 Chron. 20:1). We are not told whether the city was demolished or whether David was satisfied with the slaughter of its inhabitants. In the time of Amos, 2½ centuries later, it had again a “wall” and “citadels” and was still the sanctuary of Molech—the “king” (Amos 1:14–15). It was also at the date of the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 49:2–3), when its dependent towns are mentioned, and it is named in terms that imply it was of equal importance with Jerusalem (Ezek. 21:20). At Rabbah, no doubt, Baalis, king of the sons of Ammon (Jer. 40:14), held such court as he could muster; and within its walls was plotted the attack of Ishmael, which cost Gedaliah his life and drove Jeremiah into Egypt. It received the name Philadelphia from Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–247 b.c.), and it became one of the important cities of Decapolis; its ancient name, however, still adheres to it. It was once the seat of a bishopric and prosperous, until conquered by the Saracens. Its modern name is Amman, capital of Jordan, about twenty-two miles from the Jordan, in a valley that is a branch or perhaps the main course of the Wadi Zerka, usually identified with the Jabbok. Amman has the longest continuous occupational history of any city in the Near East. Modern Amman covers the ancient city so effectively that excavation is virtually impossible. A Roman theater with seating for 6,000 people stands in the middle of the city. Nearly everything visible on the ancient citadel is Roman, Byzantine, or Umayyad. See Rabbath.
2. A city of Judah, named with Kiriath-jearim (Josh. 15:60 only), but its location is entirely unknown. It apparently is mentioned in the el-Amarna Letters as Rubute.
bibliography: F.-M. Abel, Géographie de la Palestine (1933); G. L. Harding, The Antiquities of Jordan (1959).
Unger, M. F., Harrison, R. K., Vos, H. F., Barber, C. J., & Unger, M. F. (1988). The new Unger's Bible dictionary. Revision of: Unger's Bible dictionary. 3rd ed. c1966. (Rev. and updated ed.). Chicago: Moody Press.
5:
RABBAH. 1. A town with associated villages in the hill country of Judah (Jos. 15:60), possibly Rubute of the Amarna letters and Tuthmosis III, which lay in the region of Gezer.
2. The capital of Ammon, now Amman, capital of Jordan, 35 km E of the river Jordan. Its full name occurs in Dt. 3:11; 2 Sa. 12:26; 17:27; Je. 49:2; Ezk. 21:20 as ‘Rabbah of the Ammonites’ (rabbat benê ammôn), and is shortened to Rabbah (rabbâ) in 2 Sa. 11:11; 12:27; Je. 49:3, etc. The name evidently means ‘Main-town’ (lxx has akra, ‘citadel’, at Dt. 3:11). The iron coffin of Og, king of Bashan, rested there (Dt. 3:11; av ‘iron bedstead’).
Ammonite power grew simultaneously with Israelite, so that David faced a rival in Hanun, son of Nahash. After defeating Hanun’s Aramaean allies and the Ammonite army, David and Joab were able to overrun Ammon, Joab besieging Rabbah, but leaving David the honour of taking the citadel. The inhabitants were put to forced labour (2 Sa. 10; 12:26–31; 1 Ch. 19:19). After Solomon’s death, Ammon reasserted her independence and troubled Israel. The prophets spoke against Rabbah as representing the people of Ammon (Je. 49:2–3; Ezk. 21:20; 25:5; Am. 1:14).
Rabbah, rebuilt and renamed Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–246 bc), became one of the cities of the Decapolis and an important trading centre.
Considerable archaeological remains exist in the vicinity of Amman today. At the airport a building of the 13th century bc (Late Bronze Age) has been unearthed. It was used as a depository for cremated human remains, many of them of young children, perhaps sacrificed to *Molech. On the citadel itself are extensive ruins of the mediaeval, Byzantine, Roman and Hellenistic cities, and among them sculptures and inscriptions of the 8th and 7th centuries bc have been found. Traces of a Late Bronze Age fortification have also been noticed.
Bibliography. F. M. Abel, Géographie de la Palestine, 2, 1933, pp. 423–425; G. L. Harding, Antiquities of Jordan, 1967, pp. 61–70; J. B. Hennessy, PEQ 98, 1966, pp. 155–162; C. M. Bennett, Levant 10, 1978, pp. 1–9. j.a.t. a.r.m.
Wood, D. R. W., Wood, D. R. W., & Marshall, I. H. (1996, c1982, c1962). New Bible Dictionary. Includes index. (electronic ed. of 3rd ed.) (996). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.
6:
Rabbah (rahbʹbah). 1 A city of Judah (Josh. 15:60) in the district with Kiriath-jearim, identified tentatively with modern Khirbet Hamideh. It appears as Rubute in several ancient extrabiblical sources: Tell Amarna Letters, nos. 287, 289, 290; Taanach Tablet no. 1; Thutmose IV’s topographical list, town no. 105; and Shishak’s list, town no. 13.
2 The only town (alternately Rabbat of the Ammonites or Rabath-Ammon, meaning the ‘great’ or ‘capital’ of the Ammonites) mentioned in the Bible as specifically Ammonite. It is modern Amman, located about twenty-four miles east of the Jordan River and twenty-three miles northeast of the Dead Sea.
Recent excavations on Jebel el-Qalah, the citadel of the ancient city, indicate at least sporadic occupation throughout the Bronze Age and a fairly heavily fortified town of about 1750-1550 b.c. Salvage excavations at the old Amman Civil Airport have uncovered a structure believed to be a mortuary dating to the thirteenth century b.c. The citadel excavations reveal tenth-ninth-century b.c. phases of a defense wall, quite possibly related to David’s siege of the city and the later rebuilding (2 Sam. 11:1; 12:26-31). Iron Age II remains date to the eighth and seventh centuries b.c., with evidences of destruction that recall the rebukes of Amos (Amos 1:14), Jeremiah (Jer. 49:2, 3), and Ezekiel (Ezek. 25:5) against Rabbah and the Ammonites.
Rabbah was renamed Philadelphia after it was captured by Ptolemy Philadelphus (third century b.c.), and it flourished as a Hellenistic city, as fortified walls and structural remains testify. Architectually, the second-century a.d. Roman remains are what are prominent today, especially the Nymphaeum, columned street, and large amphitheater in downtown Amman. See also Ammonites. N.L.L.
Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row, P., & Society of Biblical Literature. (1985). Harper's Bible dictionary. Includes index. (1st ed.) (848). San Francisco: Harper & Row.
7:
Rabbah (Heb. rabbâ) (also RABBATH-AMMON)
1. A city in the tribal territory of Judah near Kiriath-jearim (Josh. 15:60), generally identified with Rubutu in the Amarna Letters and Rubute in Egyptian texts. The site was likely Khirbet Bîr el-Ḥilu/Khirbet Ḥamîdeh (149137), a short distance S of Emmaus.
2. A city (modern Amman; 238151) on the Transjordan plateau, ca. 88–105 km. (55–65 mi.) by road from Jerusalem and ca. 39 km. (24 mi.) E of the Jordan River at the headwaters of the Jabbok. Rabbah (“great” or “large”) was the center of surrounding cities and villages (cf. Ezek. 25:1–11). It is found most often in direct reference to the Ammonites (Rabbath bene Ammon, Rabbath-ammon, or Bīt-ammanu in the Assyrian texts).
Rabbah physically consisted of two parts. The upper city or acropolis, known as the “royal city” (2 Sam. 12:26), a citadel with attached terraces, was situated on Jebel Qal˓a. The lower city, the “city of waters” (2 Sam. 12:27), ran along two wadis at the base of the hill in the valley. The two were connected by a long underground passageway leading from the “city of waters” up to a cistern on Jebel Qal˓a. This 16 x 6 x 7 m. (52 x 19 x 23 ft.) high reservoir was apparently in use as early as the Middle Bronze Age and as late as the Hellenistic period.
The site has been occupied at least since the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. MB II structures are substantial, and by LB II the city had grown considerably. The best LB architecture is represented by the temple at the old Amman airport. Continuous rebuilding, especially in modern times, has destroyed so much that it is seldom possible to discern city plans. Fortunately, some significant structures remain. Tombs carved into hillsides and defense systems on the acropolis attest to almost every period.
Rabbath-ammon showplaced the “iron bed” taken from King Og of Bashan (Deut. 3:11). David captured Rabbah and crowned himself with the gold crown of Milcom, the tutelary deity (2 Sam. 12:30). He looted and reportedly destroyed Rabbah and “all the Ammonite cities,” but they rebuilt and later supplied David with food, clothing, and other goods in his time of need (2 Sam. 17:27–29).
The city fared relatively well under the Persians. It became a Hellenistic city under Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 b.c.), who officially changed its name to Philadelphia. The city came under Seleucid rule for a short time, then under Nabatean, and finally Roman rule in 63 b.c., when it flourished greatly as evidenced in a propylaeum, colonnaded street, large theater, nymphaeum, temenos, and temple of Hercules. In Byzantine times it sent bishops to the Councils of Nicea (a.d. 325), Antioch (341), and Calcedon (451). Under Arab rule, an Umayyad palace crowned the acropolis.
Bibliography. M. Burdajewicz, “Rabbath-Ammon,” NEAEHL 4:1243–49; R. H. Dornemann, “Amman,” OEANE 1:98–102.
Donald H. Wimmer
Freedman, D. N., Myers, A. C., & Beck, A. B. (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible (1105). Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans.
