Oath, Oaths
1:
Oath — a solemn appeal to God, permitted on fitting occasions (Deut. 6:13; Jer. 4:2), in various forms (Gen. 16:5; 2 Sam. 12:5; Ruth 1:17; Hos. 4:15; Rom. 1:9), and taken in different ways (Gen. 14:22; 24:2; 2 Chr. 6:22). God is represented as taking an oath (Heb. 6:16–18), so also Christ (Matt. 26:64), and Paul (Rom. 9:1; Gal. 1:20; Phil. 1:8). The precept, “Swear not at all,” refers probably to ordinary conversation between man and man (Matt. 5:34,37). But if the words are taken as referring to oaths, then their intention may have been to show “that the proper state of Christians is to require no oaths; that when evil is expelled from among them every yea and nay will be as decisive as an oath, every promise as binding as a vow.”
Easton, M. (1996, c1897). Easton's Bible dictionary. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.
2:
OATH Solemn vow or promise to fulfill a pledge. There are two terms in Hebrew that mean “oath”: ’ala and sebu’a. The latter, more general term in ancient times meant to enter into a solemn (even magical) relationship with the number seven, although ancient connections are lost. Even so, when Abraham and Abimelech entered into an oath at Beersheba (the well of seven, or the well of the oath), Abraham set aside seven ewe lambs as a witness to the fact that he had dug a well (Gn 21:22–31). The former term ’ala, often translated “oath,” properly means “curse.” At times the two terms are used together (Nm 5:21; Neh 10:29; Dn 9:11). Any breach of one’s undertaking affirmed by an oath would be attended by a curse. The Lord affirmed that he had established a covenant and a curse with Israel—that is, a breach of covenant would be followed by a curse (Dt 29:14ff.).
An oath was taken to confirm an agreement or, in a political situation, to confirm a treaty. Both in Israel and among its neighbors, God (or the gods) would act as the guarantor(s) of the agreement and his name (or their names) was invoked for this purpose. When Jacob and Laban made an agreement, they erected a heap of stones as a witness (Gn 31:53). If either party transgressed the terms, it was a heinous sin. For this reason one of the Ten Commandments dealt with empty affirmations: “Do not misuse the name of the Lord your God. The Lord will not let you go unpunished if you misuse his name” (Ex 20:7, nlt). The people of Israel were forbidden to swear their oaths by false gods (Jer 12:16; Am 8:14). To breach an international treaty, where the oath was taken in the Lord’s name, merited death (Ez 17:16–17). It was one of the complaints of Hosea that the people of his day swore falsely when they made a covenant (Hos 10:4). Judgment would attend such wanton disregard of the solemnity of an oath. Certain civil situations in Israel called for an oath (Ex 22:10–11; Lv 5:1; 6:3; Nm 5:11–28). This practice provided a pattern for the Israelite covenantal oath of allegiance between God and his people.
Christ taught that oaths were binding (Mt 5:33). In the kingdom of God oaths would become unnecessary (vv 34–37). At his trial before Caiaphas, Jesus heard an imprecatory oath from the high priest (26:63–65), and Paul swore by an oath on occasion (2 Cor 1:23; Gal 1:20). God himself was bound by his own oath (Heb 6:13–18) to keep his promise to the patriarchs (Gn 50:24; Pss 89:19–37, 49; 110:1–4).
See also Covenant; Vows.
Elwell, W. A., & Comfort, P. W. (2001). Tyndale Bible dictionary. Tyndale reference library (967). Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers.
3:
OATH. Two terms are employed in the OT to express what we understand by an oath, to take an oath, or to swear. (1) Heb. ˒ālâ, “imprecation,” according to Gesenius, from El, the name of God, and so “to call upon God.” Hence the word quite naturally passed over to the sense of imprecation, cursing, as it is frequently rendered (Num. 5:23; Isa. 24:6; Zech. 5:3; etc.). It also means a sworn covenant (Gen. 26:28; 2 Sam. 21:7) and an oath, as an appeal to God in attestation of the truth of a statement (Ex. 22:11; Neh. 10:29). (2) shƒbû˓â, from the Heb. sheba˓, “seven,” the sacred number. To “seven one’s self,” or to do by sevens, was to act after the manner of God—to give what was done a peculiarly sacred character—hence to make an oath or swear. Solemn agreements, or oaths, were often accompanied by a sevenfold action of some sort, e.g., the giving of seven ewe lambs by Abraham to Abimelech (Gen. 21:30).
Nature of Oath. Every oath contains two elements, namely, an affirmation, or promise, and an appeal to God as omniscient and the punisher of falsehoods. (1) The principle on which an oath is held to be binding is incidentally laid down in Heb. 6:16: “For men swear by one greater than themselves, and with them an oath given as confirmation is an end of every dispute.” The Almighty is represented as promising or denouncing with an oath, i.e., doing so in the most positive and solemn manner. (2) On the same principle that oath has always been held most binding that appealed to the highest authority both as regards individuals and communities. (a) Thus believers in Jehovah appealed to Him both judicially and extrajudicially. (b) Appeals of this kind to authorities recognized respectively by adjuring parties were regarded as bonds of international security and their infraction as being not only grounds for international complaint but also offenses against divine justice. (3) As a consequence of this principle, (a) appeals to God’s name on the one hand, and to heathen deities on the other, are treated in Scripture as tests of allegiance (Ex. 23:13; Deut. 29:12; etc.). (b) So also the sovereign’s name is sometimes used as a form of obligation (Gen. 42:15; 2 Sam. 11:11; 14:19). (4) Other forms of oath, serious or frivolous, are mentioned, some of which are condemned by our Lord (Matt. 5:33; 23:16–22; cf. James 5:12), yet He did not refuse the solemn adjuration of the high priest (Matt. 26:63–64).
Occasions. The Hebrews used oaths under the following circumstances: (1) Agreement or stipulation for performances of certain acts (Gen. 14:22; 24:2–3, 8–9; etc.). (2) Allegiance to a sovereign or obedience from an inferior to a superior (Eccles. 8:2; 2 Chron. 36:13; 1 Kings 18:10). (3) Promissory oath of a ruler (Josh. 6:26; 1 Sam. 14:24, 28; etc.). Priests took no oath of office (Heb. 7:21). (4) Vows made in the form of an oath (Lev. 5:4). (5) Judicial oaths. Public or judicial oaths were required on the following occasions: (a) A man receiving a pledge from a neighbor was required, in case of injury happening to the pledge, to clear himself by oath of the blame of damage (Ex. 22:10–11; 1 Kings 8:31; 2 Chron. 6:22). (b) A person suspected of having found or otherwise come into possession of lost property was to vindicate himself by an oath (Lev. 6:3). It appears that witnesses were examined on oath; a false witness, or one guilty of suppression of the truth, was to be severely punished (Lev. 5:1; Deut. 19:16–19; cf. Prov. 29:24). (c) A wife suspected of infidelity was required to clear herself by oath (Num. 5:19–22). But this ordeal does not come under the civil administration of justice.
Forms of Oaths. As to the forms of oaths, the Jews appealed to God with or without an imprecation in such phrases as “God do this to me and more also,” etc. (1 Sam. 14:44); “as the Lord lives” (14:39; 19:6; 2 Sam. 15:21; 1 Kings 18:10); “as the Lord lives and as your soul lives” (1 Sam. 20:3); “the Lord is between you and me forever” (20:23); “the God of Abraham judge between us” (Gen. 31:53). The Jews also swore “by heaven,” “by the earth,” “by Jerusalem,” “by the temple” (Matt. 5:34–35; 23:16), “by the angels” (Josephus Wars 2.16.4), and by the lives of distinguished persons (Gen. 42:15–16; 1 Sam. 1:26; 17:55; 2 Sam. 11:11; 14:19). The external manner of an oath was as follows: (1) Originally the oath of a covenant was taken by solemnly sacrificing seven animals, or it was attested by seven witnesses or pledges, consisting either of so many animals presented to the contracting party or of memorials erected to testify to the act (Gen. 21:28–31). (2) Lifting up the hand. Witnesses laid their hands on the head of the accused (Gen. 14:22; Lev. 24:14; Isa. 3:7). (3) Putting the hand under the thigh of the person to whom the promise was made. It has been explained (a) as having reference to the covenant of circumcision; (b) as containing a principle similar to that of phallic symbolism, i.e., the genital organ the symbol of the Creator; (c) as referring to the promised Messiah. (4) Oaths were sometimes taken before the altar or, as some understand the passage, if the persons were not in Jerusalem, in a position looking toward the Temple (1 Kings 8:31; 2 Chron. 6:22). (5) Dividing a sacrifice and passing between or distribution of the pieces (Gen. 15:10, 17; Jer. 34:18). In every case the oath taken before a judgment seat seems to have consisted of an adjuration by the judge, responded to by the persons sworn with an amen (Heb. ˒āmēn, “truly,” 1 Kings 22:16; Gk. su eipas, “you have said,” Matt. 26:63–64).
Sanctity. As the sanctity of oaths was carefully inculcated by the law, so the crime of perjury was strongly condemned; and to a false witness the same punishment was assigned that was due for the crime to which he testified (Ex. 20:7; Lev. 19:12; Deut. 19:16–19; Ps. 15:4; Jer. 5:2; 7:9; Ezek. 16:59; Hos. 10:4; Zech. 8:17).
Christian. The Christian practice in the matter of oaths was founded in great measure on the Jewish. Thus oath-taking on the gospels was an imitation of the Jewish practice of placing the hands on the book of the law. The meaning of our Lord’s interdiction of swearing (Matt. 5:33–37) was that “Christianity should know no oath at all. To the consciousness of the Christian, God should always be so vividly present that, to him and others in the Christian community, his yea and nay are, in point of reliability, equivalent to an oath. His yea and nay are oath enough” (Meyer, Com., ad loc.). The prohibition of swearing does not refer to official oaths but to private conduct, for none of the oaths referred to by our Lord are judicial oaths. The orientals were great swearers, and the secondary oaths forbidden by our Lord are just the ordinary profanities of their conversation. In these they avoided the use of God’s name, and they supposed that the breaking of these oaths did not constitute perjury.
bibliography: J. E. Tyler, Oaths: Their Origin, Nature, and History (1835); S. A. B. Mercer, The Oath in Babylonian and Assyrian Literature (1912); D. Daube, Studies in Biblical Law (1947); M. G. Kline, Westminster Theological Journal 27 (1964): 1–20; G. F. Oehler, Theology of the Old Testament (1978), pp. 176, 230, 248–50.
Unger, M. F., Harrison, R. K., Vos, H. F., Barber, C. J., & Unger, M. F. (1988). The new Unger's Bible dictionary. Revision of: Unger's Bible dictionary. 3rd ed. c1966. (Rev. and updated ed.). Chicago: Moody Press.
4:
OATHS. In ancient Israel: 1. Oaths were attributed to God (Num. 14:21) in relation to his covenant with Israel (Dt. 31:7f), his promises (Gn. 22:16–18; 26:3), his judgments (Am. 4:2) and his word (Ezk. 20:3; 33:11). 2. It followed that oaths ensured a norm of morality (Gn. 34:1–7; Je. 29:20–23). Oaths in God’s name were sacrosanct (Dt. 10:20), maintaining family honour and tribal loyalty. To ratify one’s oath by invoking Yahweh’s name, while knowingly perjuring oneself, was to profane the name (Lv. 19:12; Ex. 20:7). 3. In ancient Israel the absence of jurisprudence made the oath obligatory in administering justice at the town gate.
Of the two Heb. words translated oath, sebū˓â and ˓ālâ, the second is stronger, meaning a curse (Is. 14:24). The first more commonly conveys the weaker sense of solemn promise. When one reinforced his oath by invoking Yahweh to witness it, the swearer placed himself under a curse if proved to ‘have sworn deceitfully’. Prof. de Vaux reconstructs the various contexts in which this judicial oath applied (e.g. Ex. 22:1–11; Dt. 2:1–8). Nu. 5:21 describes how the judicial oath became an imprecatory or adjuratory oath.
Oaths applied when making covenants (Gn. 26:28), promises (Gn. 24:2^t), decisions (1 Sa. 25:22), when emphasizing the veracity of statements (Jdg. 8:19; 1 Sa. 20:3), the certainty of prophetic predictions (1 Ki. 17:1), guaranteeing against perjury (Jdg. 11:10; Je. 42:5), reinforcing a command (Gn. 24:41), in legal proceedings (1 Ki. 8:31; 2 Ch. 6:22f.) and concerning property (Lv. 5:1ff.; 6:1ff.). Perjury outraged the prophets (Ezk. 17:13–19; Je. 5:2; 6:2; Ho. 4:2; Zc. 5:23f.; Mal. 3:5).
God swore by himself: to confirm his covenant with Abraham (Gn. 22:16–18; Ps. 105:9f; Lk. 1:73), his promise to David relative to Christ’s resurrection (Ps. 89:3f.; 132:11f; Acts 2:29–32) and Christ’s unchangeable high priesthood (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:17–28).
Christ prohibited oaths absolutely (Mt. 5:34). The reasoning behind this was: the old covenant was ending (Mk. 1:14f; Mt. 5:33); Jesus is ‘the truth’ (Jn. 14:6); the Christian is in ‘him that is true’ (1 Jn. 5:20); therefore an unambiguous ‘yes’ or ‘no’ suffices (Mt. 5:37; Jas. 5:12). Jesus condemned scribal casuistry (Mt. 23:16–22) but implied the value of oaths (Mt. 26:63f). Christians follow his example (Lk. 22:70; 23:3), remembering Peter’s bitter experience (Mk. 14:72; Mt. 26:70, 72, 74).
The Apostle Paul condemns ‘perjured persons’ (1 Tim. 1:10), but calls God to witness to his blameless life (1 Thes. 2:5; 2 Cor. 1:23), his sincerity (Gal. 1:20) and his affection for fellow-believers (2 Cor. 11:11; Phil. 1:8; Rom. 1:9).
Bibliography. W. Eichrodt, The Theology of the OT (trans. by J. A. Baker), 1, 1961, pp. 206, 219; 2, 1967, p. 318; R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel (trans. by John McHugh), 1961, pp. 106, 157f., 169, 255,420; G. von Rad, OT Theology (trans. by D. M. G. Stalker), 1, 1962, pp. 129, 223, 311, 378, 414f.; 2, 1963; TDNT, pp. 683, 729. j.g.s.s.t.
Wood, D. R. W., Wood, D. R. W., & Marshall, I. H. (1996, c1982, c1962). New Bible Dictionary. Includes index. (electronic ed. of 3rd ed.) (840). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.
5:
oath, a statement by which people give assurance that they have spoken the truth or by which they obligate themselves to perform certain actions. God is usually invoked as guarantor of the oath, with the expectation that a broken or false oath will be punished. Oaths thus are a holy ritual and to swear falsely is to profane God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Lev. 19:12). Swearing by God’s name was most solemn (Matt. 26:63), but people also swore by holy things (Matt. 5:36; 23:16-22) and by raising their right hands (Rev. 10:5-6). Covenant ceremonies demanded the swearing of oaths (Gen. 26:28).
The Hebrew word for ‘oath’ comes from the number seven, the sacred and magical number in Hebrew culture. In Genesis 21 seven lambs are used as witnesses to a covenant. Oaths and curses (a related type of statement) are often indicated in the Bible by abbreviated formulae, such as ‘May the Lord do thus and so if…’ (1 Sam. 3:17; 14:44) and ‘As the Lord lives…’ (1 Sam. 19:6). A full oath ritual for the wife suspected of adultery is found in Numbers 5. Peter responds to the inquiries of people in the high priest’s courtyard with a simple denial, an oath and a curse (Matt. 26:69-74). The nt also contains a tradition, similar to one found among the Essenes, that one should not swear oaths (Matt. 5:34; James 5:12). See also Covenant; Curse and Blessing; Witness. A.J.S.
Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row, P., & Society of Biblical Literature. (1985). Harper's Bible dictionary. Includes index. (1st ed.) (716). San Francisco: Harper & Row.
6:
Oath
A sacred promise to keep one’s word (Num. 30:2) and to honor one’s covenants and agreements (Gen. 26:28; 2 Kgs. 11:4). As such, oaths are solemn declarations, which invoke God (Gen. 24:3; 31:53; Deut. 10:20) or some sacred object (Gen. 24:2; 47:29; cf. Matt. 5:33–37; 23:16–22) in order to guarantee the truth of what is declared. The power of the promise itself is binding in biblical oaths and is premised on the understanding that an oath confirms the obligation of the spoken word (Judg. 11:35; 1 Sam. 14:24–27; Jdt. 8:30; cf. Matt. 14:9). The sacral nature of oaths is emphasized by the invocation of God as the guarantor or witness to the sworn word (Gen. 21:23; Josh. 9:19; 1 Kgs. 2:8, 23, 42), and not uncommonly God swears an oath in the OT. Often these concern the promises made to Israel, e.g., those made to Abraham and other ancestral figures (Gen. 22:16–18; 24:7; Deut. 19:8; Josh. 21:43–44; Jer. 11:5; Sir. 44:21), but sometimes they involve threats and sanctions against those who would violate the covenant (Josh. 5:6; 1 Sam. 3:14; Ezek. 17:16–19).
The need for fundamental trust and unequivocal veracity in oaths is so serious as to require the provision of punishments for those who fail to keep them, and any violation of an oath may bring dire consequences (Ezek. 16:59; Dan. 9:11). Therefore, the Bible warns against swearing false oaths and provides sanctions for those who are disingenuous in making them (Exod. 20:7 = Deut. 5:11; Lev. 5:4; 19:12; Zech. 8:17; Wis. 14:29–30). To do so is to devalue the spoken word, which, when given under oath, is the most solemn promise a person makes. Conversely, the one who swears truthfully and with purity of heart receives a blessing (Ps. 24:4–5; Jer. 4:2). Although most oaths seem to be absolutely binding (Num. 30:2, 4, 6–7, 9–11, 14), sometimes conditions placed on them or circumstances under which they are made may mitigate the obligations they carry (vv. 5, 8, 12–13; Gen. 24:41; Josh. 2:17, 20).
The NT understanding of the nature and function of oaths and their value is varied. Some NT authors seem to share the attitude of Philo Judaeus that oaths should be seldom or never sworn. When a person is too quick to make an oath it may not indicate good faith and may actually devalue on the oath itself (Philo De spec. leg. 2.8). Therefore, oaths should be sworn only when they are absolutely necessary (De spec. leg. 2.9). Matthew’s Jesus advises against swearing oaths at all (Matt. 5:33–37) and criticizes the casuistry that can sometimes accompany oath-making (23:16–20). Jas. 5:12 follows the tradition of Matt. 5:33–37 in prohibiting the swearing of oaths. It is interesting, however, that, in the Passion narrative Matthew adds that Peter swore on oath in his second denial of Jesus (Matt. 26:72). In Peter’s third denial, Matthew follows Mark 14:71, where Peter invokes a curse on himself in order to strengthen his claim that he does not know Jesus (Matt. 26:74).
Other NT authors look more positively upon oaths. Paul employs oath formulas in Rom. 1:9; 2 Cor. 1:23; Gal. 1:20; Phil. 1:8. In Hebrews God’s oath to Abraham is recalled as a reminder of the guarantee of God’s promises and the surety of God’s word (Heb. 6:13–19). Elsewhere in the NT an oath sworn by God is remembered in Luke 1:73 (cf. v. 55); Acts 2:30; Rom. 14:11; Heb. 3:11, 18; 4:3. Thus the attitude of NT authors on swearing oaths depends on whom one consults.
Alan C. Mitchell
Freedman, D. N., Myers, A. C., & Beck, A. B. (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible (978). Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans.
