Labor
1:
LABOR. This English term is the rendering of a large number of Hebrew and Greek terms. The teaching of Scripture (Gen. 2:15) is that man, even in his state of innocence, was to lead a life of activity, which was different, however, from the trouble and restlessness of the weary toil into which he was plunged by sin. Exercise of some kind was essential to his well-being (cf. Eccles. 5:12). In consequence of the Fall, the earth no longer yielded spontaneously the fruits requisite for man’s maintenance, but he was obliged to secure the necessities of life by labor and strenuous exertion (Gen. 3:19).
“Work, as distinguished from labor, is not so much a term denoting a lighter kind of labor as a general and comprehensive term applied to the performance of any task, whether easy or severe. ˓Ăbōdâ is the execution of a definite daily task, whether in field labor (Ps. 104:23) and mechanical employment (Ex. 39:32) on the one hand, or priestly service and the duties connected with the worship on the other (12:25–26; Lev. 23:7–8), i.e., such occupations as came under the denomination of labor, business, or industrial employment” (K. & D., Com., on Ex. 20:8).
That labor was held in high respect we gather from such expressions as, “Do you see a man skilled in his work? He will stand before kings” (Prov. 22:29; cf. 10:4; 12:24, 27). When Nebuchadnezzar carried the Jews away into captivity he found among them a 1,000 craftsmen and smiths (2 Kings 24:14–16; Jer. 29:2).
The ancient rabbis regarded manual labor as honorable and urged it upon all as a duty. In the Talmud we find such sayings as the following: “He who does not teach his son a craft is, as it were, bringing him up to robbery”; “Labor is greater to be prized, for it elevates the laborer, and maintains him.”
The following values of labor are given by F. R. Conder (Bib. Ed., 3: 223ff.): “The denarius, which was the Roman equivalent for a quarter shekel, was a day’s pay of a Roman soldier. This was in exact accordance with the price, mentioned in the parable of the laborers in the vineyard, of a penny a day. The limit between the proper subject for alms for the purpose of support and the independent man was fixed by the oral law at the receipt of two hundred zuzae, that is to say, to one shekel per week…. This was considered by the law of Moses to be the lowest rate at which life was to be supported.” See Handicrafts; Service.
biliography: C. L. Mitton, The Epistle of James (1966), pp. 175–83; F. J. Delitzsch, A New Commentary on Genesis (1978), 1:165–76; G. Bush, Notes on Exodus (1981), 1:85–94; J. I. Packer, M. C. Tenney, and W. White, eds., The Bible Almanac (1980), pp. 263–70, 280–91.
Unger, M. F., Harrison, R. K., Vos, H. F., Barber, C. J., & Unger, M. F. (1988). The new Unger's Bible dictionary. Revision of: Unger's Bible dictionary. 3rd ed. c1966. (Rev. and updated ed.). Chicago: Moody Press.
2:
Labor, Work, Toil
Human activity in the form of work, toil, and labor is expressed in a variety of ways in Scripture reflecting its economic, moral, and spiritual significance.
The term “work” covers a wide range of meaning which includes both constructive activity and that which is made. This is reflected (e.g., Ps. 145) in the nature of God, whose work is sound both in its creative power (vv. 4, 17) and in its outcome (v. 10). The Creation stories in Gen. 1–2:3; 2:4b–25 reflect two different aspects of the divine work. In Gen. 1–2:3 the sovereign grandeur of God is celebrated, whose voice commands and all is ordered by the wisdom of his measured rule. In Gen. 2:4b–25 the work of creation is more of an experiment, at times proactive (v. 7) and at times reactive (v. 18). In this story the verb “to form” (Gen. 2:7–8, 19) echoes the craftsmanship of the potter (cf. Jer. 18:1–11; Isa. 64:8). Indeed, a wide range of trades and crafts continues to shape the imagery of God’s work in Scripture — e.g., refining, threshing, building, forestry, irrigation, and bleaching.
In the story of the Fall (Gen. 3:1–24) it is significant that mankind’s punishment is described not as work but as toil (v. 17). Work can also lead to a temptation to pride (Gen. 11:1–9; contrast Ps. 127:1); consequently a customary prayer for blessing accompanied work (Ps. 129:8; Ruth 2:4; cf. Judg. 6:12). The creative purpose of work is commended in the Wisdom Literature (Prov. 10:4; 18:9) for both men and women (31:10–31), and bestows freedom (12:24; 22:29). However, a more pessimistic note can be sounded about the enduring nature of human endeavor (Eccl. 2:18–20; 5:13–20; cf. 2:24). This led eventually to the valuing of the study of Torah as an activity which was preferable to manual labor (Sir. 38:24–34; cf. Acts 6:2–4; the former passage presents a fine portrait of commercial activity in the ancient world; cf. Rev. 18:11–19).
Although Jesus and the disciples left their employment for the mission of the kingdom, Jesus draws upon imagery of work in his teaching (Luke 9:62). In the parables the way of God may echo patronage in working life (Mark 12:1–9; Luke 17:7–10) or it may cut across conventions (Matt. 20:1–15). Paul, however, chose to work “with his own hands” (1 Cor. 4:12; cf Acts 18:3; 20:34), even though he could claim support (1 Cor. 9:4, 14) and received it (2 Cor. 11:8). Such a practice enabled him to avoid burdening others (1 Cor. 9:18; 2 Cor. 11:9; 12:13). It also served as an exhortation to self-reliance (1 Thess. 2:9–12; 2 Thess. 3:7–13), not only for the good of the congregation but as a witness to wider society (1 Thess. 4:12).
A positive view of work is reflected especially in the Letter of James, which values faith both as practical action (Jas. 2:18–26) and as a safeguard against acquisitiveness (4:13–5:6; cf. Matt. 6:25–33). Generally speaking, mankind cannot rely on work to be justified before God (Rom. 3:20), but work is the expression of faith and a means of service (1 John 3:17–18; Matt. 25:31–46; Rev. 14:13; cf. 20:12). In the Fourth Gospel especially, work expresses the unique activity of God through Jesus (John 5:17). Jesus’ miracles are his works (John 10:25; 14:11). The work of God in Jesus represents supremely the expression of the divine glory reflected in our human nature (Gen. 1:26). Thereby for John, as indeed for Scripture as a whole, the creative and redemptive understandings of work are inseparable, as are the economic and spiritual aspects of all human activity.
Bibliography. G. Agrell, Work, Toil, and Sustenance (Stockholm, 1976); R. J. Banks, God the Worker (Valley Forge, 1994).
James Francis
Freedman, D. N., Myers, A. C., & Beck, A. B. (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible (780). Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans.
